第十章 After world war II 战後的欧洲各国
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t. Political reforms were varied; in many countries Communist institutions were able to keep themselves in power， such as the People’s Republic of China， while for other states various emerging political parties succeeded. Many Communist and Socialist organisations in the West turned their guiding principles over to social democracy. The European political landscape was drastically changed， with numerous Eastern Bloc countries joining NATO and stronger European economic and social integration entailed. ??1989年下半年开始的东欧剧变和1991年年末的苏联解体，合起来称为苏东剧变，就是苏联和东欧的共产党纷纷丧失政权所引发的政治地震，合起来实为一次大规模剧变。 ??东欧剧变首先从波兰开始，其次是匈牙利、民主德国……虽然各国演变的过程基本一致，但东欧国家的政权转移方式却大不相同，大体上可分为三类：一是执政的共产党最高层内部发生了裂痕，自己搞垮了自己，最终